Synopsis 6

Editor’s note: this document is out of date and remains here for historic interest. See Synopsis 6 for the current design information.

This document summarizes Apocalypse 6, which covers subroutines and the new type system.

Subroutines and Other Code Objects

Subroutines (keyword: sub) are noninheritable routines with parameter lists.

Methods (keyword: method) are inheritable routines that always have an associated object (known as their invocant) and belong to a particular class.

Submethods (keyword: submethod) are noninheritable methods, or subroutines masquerading as methods. They have an invocant and belong to a particular class.

Multimethods (keyword: multi) are routines that do not belong to a particular class, but which have one or more invocants.

Rules (keyword: rule) are methods (of a grammar) that perform pattern matching. Their associated block has a special syntax (see Synopsis 5).

Macros (keyword: macro) are routines whose calls execute as soon as they are parsed (i.e. at compile-time). Macros may return another source code string or a parse-tree.

Standard Subroutines

The general syntax for named subroutines is any of:

     my RETTYPE sub NAME ( PARAMS ) TRAITS {...}
    our RETTYPE sub NAME ( PARAMS ) TRAITS {...}
                sub NAME ( PARAMS ) TRAITS {...}

The general syntax for anonymous subroutines is:

    sub ( PARAMS ) TRAITS {...}

“Trait” is the new name for a compile-time (is) property. See Traits and Properties

Perl5ish Subroutine Declarations

You can still declare a sub without parameter list, as in Perl 5:

    sub foo {...}

Arguments still come in via the @_ array, but they are constant aliases to actual arguments:

    sub say { print qq{"@_"\n}; }   # args appear in @_

    sub cap { $_ = uc $_ for @_ }   # Error: elements of @_ are constant

If you need to modify the elements of @_, then declare it with the is rw trait:

    sub swap (*@_ is rw) { @_[0,1] = @_[1,0] }

Blocks

Raw blocks are also executable code structures in Perl 6.

Every block defines a subroutine, which may either be executed immediately or passed in as a Code reference argument to some other subroutine.

“Pointy subs”

The arrow operator -> is almost a synonym for the anonymous sub keyword. The parameter list of a pointy sub does not require parentheses and a pointy sub may not be given traits.

    $sq = -> $val { $val**2 };  # Same as: $sq = sub ($val) { $val**2 };

    for @list -> $elem {        # Same as: for @list, sub ($elem) {
        print "$elem\n";        #              print "$elem\n";
    }                           #          }

Stub Declarations

To predeclare a subroutine without actually defining it, use a “stub block”:

    sub foo {...};     # Yes, those three dots are part of the actual syntax

The old Perl 5 form:

    sub foo;

is a compile-time error in Perl 6 (for reasons explained in Apocalypse 6).

Globally Scoped Subroutines

Subroutines and variables can be declared in the global namespace, and are thereafter visible everywhere in a program.

Global subroutines and variables are normally referred to by prefixing their identifier with *, but it may be omitted if the reference is unambiguous:

    $*next_id = 0;
    sub *saith($text)  { print "Yea verily, $text" }

    module A {
        my $next_id = 2;    # hides any global or package $next_id
        saith($next_id);    # print the lexical $next_id;
        saith($*next_id);   # print the global $next_id;
    }

    module B {
        saith($next_id);    # Unambiguously the global $next_id
    }

Lvalue Subroutines

Lvalue subroutines return a “proxy” object that can be assigned to. It’s known as a proxy because the object usually represents the purpose or outcome of the subroutine call.

Subroutines are specified as being lvalue using the is rw trait.

An lvalue subroutine may return a variable:

    my $lastval;
    sub lastval () is rw { return $lastval }

or the result of some nested call to an lvalue subroutine:

    sub prevval () is rw { return lastval() }

or a specially tied proxy object, with suitably programmed FETCH and STORE methods:

    sub checklastval ($passwd) is rw {
        my $proxy is Proxy(
                FETCH => sub ($self) {
                            return lastval();
                         },
                STORE => sub ($self, $val) {
                            die unless check($passwd);
                            lastval() = $val;
                         },
        );
        return $proxy;
    }

Operator Overloading

Operators are just subroutines with special names.

Unary operators are defined as prefix or postfix:

    sub prefix:OPNAME  ($operand) {...}
    sub postfix:OPNAME ($operand) {...}

Binary operators are defined as infix:

    sub infix:OPNAME ($leftop, $rightop) {...}

Bracketing operators are defined as circumfix. The leading and trailing delimiters together are the name of the operator.

    sub circumfix:LEFTDELIM...RIGHTDELIM ($contents) {...}
    sub circumfix:DELIMITERS ($contents) {...}

If the left and right delimiters aren’t separated by “...”, then the DELIMITERS string must have an even number of characters. The first half is treated as the opening delimiter and the second half as the closing.

Operator names can be any sequence of Unicode characters. For example:

    sub infix:(c)        ($text, $owner) { return $text but Copyright($owner) }
    method prefix:± (Num $x) returns Num { return +$x | -$x }
    multi postfix:!             (Int $n) { $n<2 ?? 1 :: $n*($n-1)! }
    macro circumfix:<!--...-->   ($text) { "" }

    my $document = $text (c) $me;

    my $tolerance = ±7!;

    <!-- This is now a comment -->

Parameters and Arguments

Perl 6 subroutines may be declared with parameter lists.

By default, all parameters are constant aliases to their corresponding arguments – the parameter is just another name for the original argument, but the argument can’t be modified through it. To allow modification, use the is rw trait. To pass-by-copy, use the is copy trait.

Parameters may be required or optional. They may be passed by position, or by name. Individual parameters may confer a scalar or list context on their corresponding arguments.

Arguments destined for required parameters must come before those bound to optional parameters. Arguments destined for positional parameters must come before those bound to named parameters.

Invocant Parameters

A method invocant is specified as the first parameter in the parameter list, with a colon (rather than a comma) immediately after it:

    method get_name ($self:) {...}
    method set_name ($me: $newname) {...}

The corresponding argument (the invocant) is evaluated in scalar context and is passed as the left operand of the method call operator:

    print $obj.get_name();
    $obj.set_name("Sam");

Multimethod invocants are specified at the start of the parameter list, with a colon terminating the list of invocants:

    multi handle_event ($window, $event: $mode) {...}    # two invocants

Multimethod invocant arguments are passed positionally, though the first invocant can be passed via the method call syntax:

    # Multimethod calls...
    handle_event($w, $e, $m);
    $w.handle_event($e, $m);

Invocants may also be passed using the indirect object syntax, with a colon after them. The colon is just a special form of the comma, and has the same precedence:

    # Indirect method call...
    set_name $obj: "Sam";

    # Indirect multimethod call...
    handle_event $w, $e: $m;

Passing too many or too few invocants is a fatal error.

The first invocant is always the topic of the corresponding method or multimethod.

Editor’s note: this document is out of date and remains here for historic interest. See Synopsis 6 for the current design information.

Required Parameters

Required parameters are specified at the start of a subroutine’s parameter list:

    sub numcmp ($x, $y) { return $x <=> $y }

The corresponding arguments are evaluated in scalar context and may be passed positionally or by name. To pass an argument by name, specify it as a pair: parameter_name => argument_value.

    $comparison = numcmp(2,7);
    $comparison = numcmp(x=>2, y=>7);
    $comparison = numcmp(y=>7, x=>2);

Passing the wrong number of required arguments is a fatal error.

The number of required parameters a subroutine has can be determined by calling its .arity method:

    $args_required = &foo.arity;

Optional Parameters

Optional positional parameters are specified after all the required parameters and each is marked with a ? before the parameter:

    sub my_substr ($str, ?$from, ?$len) {...}

The = sign introduces a default value:

    sub my_substr ($str, ?$from = 0, ?$len = Inf) {...}

Default values can be calculated at run-time. They can even use the values of preceding parameters:

    sub xml_tag ($tag, ?$endtag = matching_tag($tag) ) {...}

Arguments that correspond to optional parameters are evaluated in scalar context. They can be omitted, passed positionally, or passed by name:

    my_substr("foobar");            # $from is 0, $len is infinite
    my_substr("foobar",1);          # $from is 1, $len is infinite
    my_substr("foobar",1,3);        # $from is 1, $len is 3
    my_substr("foobar",len=>3);     # $from is 0, $len is 3

Missing optional arguments default to their default value, or to undef if they have no default.

Named Parameters

Named parameters follow any required or optional parameters in the signature. They are marked by a + before the parameter.

    sub formalize($text, +$case, +$justify) {...}

Arguments that correspond to named parameters are evaluated in scalar context. They can only be passed by name, so it doesn’t matter what order you pass them in, so long as they follow any positional arguments:

    $formal = formalize($title, case=>'upper');
    $formal = formalize($title, justify=>'left');
    $formal = formalize($title, justify=>'right', case=>'title');

Named parameters are always optional. Default values for named parameters are defined in the same way as for optional parameters. Named parameters default to undef if they have no default.

List Parameters

List parameters capture a variable length list of data. They’re used in subroutines like print, where the number of arguments needs to be flexible. They’re also called “variadic parameters,” because they take a variable number of arguments.

Variadic parameters follow any required or optional parameters. They are marked by a * before the parameter:

    sub duplicate($n, *@data, *%flag) {...}

Named variadic arguments are bound to the variadic hash (*%flag in the above example). Such arguments are evaluated in scalar context. Any remaining variadic arguments at the end of the argument list are bound to the variadic array (*@data above) and are evaluated in list context.

For example:

    duplicate(3, reverse=>1, collate=>0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 14);

    # The @data parameter receives [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 14]
    # The %flag parameter receives { reverse=>1, collate=>0 }

Variadic scalar parameters capture what would otherwise be the first elements of the variadic array:

    sub head(*$head, *@tail)         { return $head }
    sub neck(*$head, *$neck, *@tail) { return $neck }
    sub tail(*$head, *@tail)         { return @tail }

    head(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);        # $head parameter receives 1
                                # @tail parameter receives [2, 3, 4, 5]

    neck(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);        # $head parameter receives 1
                                # $neck parameter receives 2
                                # @tail parameter receives [3, 4, 5]

Variadic scalars still impose list context on their arguments.

Variadic parameters are treated lazily – the list is only flattened into an array when individual elements are actually accessed:

        @fromtwo = tail(1..Inf);        # @fromtwo contains a lazy [2..Inf]

Flattening Argument Lists

The unary prefix operator * flattens its operand (which allows the elements of an array to be used as an argument list). The * operator also causes its operand – and any subsequent arguments in the argument list – to be evaluated in list context.

    sub foo($x, $y, $z) {...}    # expects three scalars
    @onetothree = 1..3;          # array stores three scalars

    foo(1,2,3);                  # okay:  three args found
    foo(@onetothree);            # error: only one arg
    foo(*@onetothree);           # okay:  @onetothree flattened to three args

The * operator flattens lazily – the array is only flattened if flattening is actually required within the subroutine. To flatten before the list is even passed into the subroutine, use the unary prefix ** operator:

    foo(**@onetothree);          # array flattened before &foo called

Pipe Operators

The variadic array of a subroutine call can be passed in separately from the normal argument list, by using either of the “pipe” operators: <== or ==>.

Each operator expects to find a call to a variadic subroutine on its “sharp” end, and a list of values on its “blunt” end:

    grep { $_ % 2 } <== @data;

    @data ==> grep { $_ % 2 };

First, it flattens the list of values on the blunt side. Then, it binds that flattened list to the variadic parameter(s) of the subroutine on the sharp side. So both of the calls above are equivalent to:

    grep { $_ % 2 } *@data;

Leftward pipes are a convenient way of explicitly indicating the typical right-to-left flow of data through a chain of operations:

    @oddsquares = map { $_**2 } sort grep { $_ % 2 } @nums;

    # more clearly written as...

    @oddsquares = map { $_**2 } <== sort <== grep { $_ % 2 } <== @nums;

Rightward pipes are a convenient way of reversing the normal data flow in a chain of operations, to make it read left-to-right:

    @oddsquares =
            @nums ==> grep { $_ % 2 } ==> sort ==> map { $_**2 };

If the operand on the sharp end of a pipe is not a call to a variadic operation, then it must be a variable, in which case the list operand is assigned to the variable. This special case allows for “pure” processing chains:

    @oddsquares <== map { $_**2 } <== sort <== grep { $_ % 2 } <== @nums;

    @nums ==> grep { $_ % 2 } ==> sort ==> map { $_**2 } ==> @oddsquares;

Closure Parameters

Parameters declared with the & sigil take blocks, closures, or subroutines as their arguments. Closure parameters can be required, optional, or named.

    sub limited_grep (Int $count, &block, *@list) {...}

    # and later...

    @first_three = limited_grep 3 {$_<10} @data;

Within the subroutine, the closure parameter can be used like any other lexically scoped subroutine:

    sub limited_grep (Int $count, &block, *@list) {
        ...
        if block($nextelem) {...}
        ...
    }

The closure parameter can have its own signature (from which the parameter names may be omitted):

    sub limited_Dog_grep ($count, &block(Dog), Dog *@list) {...}

and even a return type:

    sub limited_Dog_grep ($count, &block(Dog) returns Bool, Dog *@list) {...}

When an argument is passed to a closure parameter that has this kind of signature, the argument must be a Code object with a compatible parameter list and return type.

Unpacking Array Parameters

Instead of specifying an array parameter as an array:

    sub quicksort (@data, ?$reverse, ?$inplace) {
        my $pivot := shift @data;
        ...
    }

it may be broken up into components in the signature, by specifying the parameter as if it were an anonymous array of parameters:

    sub quicksort ([$pivot, *@data], ?$reverse, ?$inplace) {
        ...
    }

This subroutine still expects an array as its first argument, just like the first version.

Editor’s note: this document is out of date and remains here for historic interest. See Synopsis 6 for the current design information.

Attributive parameters

If a method’s parameter is declared with a . after the sigil (like an attribute):

    method initialize($.name, $.age) {}

then the argument is assigned directly to the object’s attribute of the same name. This avoids the frequent need to write code like:

    method initialize($name, $age) {
        $.name = $name;
        $.age  = $age;
    }

Placeholder Variables

Even though every bare block is a closure, bare blocks can’t have explicit parameter lists. Instead, they use “placeholder” variables, marked by a caret (^) after their sigils.

Using placeholders in a block defines an implicit parameter list. The signature is the list of distinct placeholder names, sorted in Unicode order. So:

    { $^y < $^z && $^x != 2 }

is a shorthand for:

    sub ($x,$y,$z) { $y < $z && $x != 2 }

Types

These are the standard type names in Perl 6 (at least this week):

    bit         single native bit
    int         native integer
    str         native string
    num         native floating point
    ref         native pointer 
    bool        native boolean
    Bit         Perl single bit (allows traits, aliasing, etc.)
    Int         Perl integer (allows traits, aliasing, etc.)
    Str         Perl string
    Num         Perl number
    Ref         Perl reference
    Bool        Perl boolean
    Array       Perl array
    Hash        Perl hash
    IO          Perl filehandle
    Code        Base class for all executable objects
    Routine     Base class for all nameable executable objects
    Sub         Perl subroutine
    Method      Perl method
    Submethod   Perl subroutine acting like a method
    Macro       Perl compile-time subroutine
    Rule        Perl pattern
    Block       Base class for all unnameable executable objects
    Bare        Basic Perl block
    Parametric  Basic Perl block with placeholder parameters
    Package     Perl 5 compatible namespace
    Module      Perl 6 standard namespace
    Class       Perl 6 standard class namespace
    Object      Perl 6 object
    Grammar     Perl 6 pattern matching namespace
    List        Perl list
    Lazy        Lazily evaluated Perl list
    Eager       Non-lazily evaluated Perl list

Value Types

Explicit types are optional. Perl variables have two associated types: their “value type” and their “variable type”.

The value type specifies what kinds of values may be stored in the variable. A value type is given as a prefix or with the returns or of keywords:

    my Dog $spot;
    my $spot returns $dog;
    my $spot of Dog;

    our Animal sub get_pet() {...}
    sub get_pet() returns Animal {...}
    sub get_pet() of Animal {...}

A value type on an array or hash specifies the type stored by each element:

    my Dog @pound;  # each element of the array stores a Dog

    my Rat %ship;   # the value of each entry stores a Rat

Variable Types

The variable type specifies how the variable itself is implemented. It is given as a trait of the variable:

    my $spot is Scalar;             # this is the default
    my $spot is PersistentScalar;
    my $spot is DataBase;

Defining a variable type is the Perl 6 equivalent to tying a variable in Perl 5.

Hierarchical Types

A nonscalar type may be qualified, in order to specify what type of value each of its elements stores:

    my Egg $cup;                       # the value is an Egg
    my Egg @carton;                    # each elem is an Egg
    my Array of Egg @box;              # each elem is an array of Eggs
    my Array of Array of Egg @crate;   # each elem is an array of arrays of Eggs
    my Hash of Array of Recipe %book;  # each value is a hash of arrays of Recipes

Each successive of makes the type on its right a parameter of the type on its left. So:

    my Hash of Array of Recipe %book;

means:

    my Hash(returns=>Array(returns=>Recipe)) %book;

Because the actual variable can be hard to find when complex types are specified, there is a postfix form as well:

    my Hash of Array of Recipe %book;           # HoHoAoRecipe
    my %book of Hash of Array of Recipe;        # same thing
    my %book returns Hash of Array of Recipe;   # same thing

The returns form is more commonly seen in subroutines:

    my Hash of Array of Recipe sub get_book () {...}
    my sub get_book () of Hash of Array of Recipe {...}
    my sub get_book returns Hash of Array of Recipe {...}

Junctive Types

Anywhere you can use a single type you can use a junction of types:

    my Int|Str $error = $val;              # can assign if $val~~Int or $val~~Str

    if $shimmer.isa(Wax & Topping) {...}   # $shimmer must inherit from both

Parameter Types

Parameters may be given types, just like any other variable:

    sub max (int @array is rw) {...}
    sub max (@array of int is rw) {...}

Return Types

On a scoped subroutine, a return type can be specified before or after the name:

    our Egg sub lay {...}
    our sub lay returns Egg {...}

    my Rabbit sub hat {...}
    my sub hat returns Rabbit {...}

If a subroutine is not explicitly scoped, then it belongs to the current namespace (module, class, grammar, or package). Any return type must go after the name:

    sub lay returns Egg {...}

On an anonymous subroutine, any return type can only go after the name:

    $lay = sub returns Egg {...};

unless you use the “anonymous declarator” (a/an):

    $lay = an Egg sub {...};
    $hat = a Rabbit sub {...};

Properties and Traits

Compile-time properties are now called “traits.” The is NAME (DATA) syntax defines traits on containers and subroutines, as part of their declaration:

    my $pi is constant = 3;

    my $key is Persistent(file=>".key");

    sub fib is cached {...}

The will NAME BLOCK syntax is a synonym for is NAME (BLOCK):

    my $fh will undo { close $fh };    # Same as: my $fh is undo({ close $fh });

The but NAME (DATA) syntax specifies run-time properties on values:

    my $pi = 3 but Approximate("legislated");

    sub system {
        ...
        return $error but false if $error;
        return 0 but true;
    }

Subroutine Traits

These traits may be declared on the subroutine as a whole (not on individual parameters).

is signature

The signature of a subroutine – normally declared implicitly, by providing a parameter list and/or return type.

returns/is returns

The type returned by a subroutine.

will do

The block of code executed when the subroutine is called – normally declared implicitly, by providing a block after the subroutine’s signature definition.

is rw

Marks a subroutine as returning an lvalue.

is parsed

Specifies the rule by which a macro call is parsed.

is cached

Marks a subroutine as being memoized

is inline

Suggests to the compiler that the subroutine is a candidate for optimization via inlining.

is tighter/is looser/is equiv

Specifies the precedence of an operator relative to an existing operator.

is assoc

Specifies the associativity of an operator.

PRE/POST

Mark blocks that are to be unconditionally executed before/after the subroutine’s do block. These blocks must return a true value, otherwise an exception is thrown.

FIRST/LAST/NEXT/KEEP/UNDO/etc.

Mark blocks that are to be conditionally executed before or after the subroutine’s do block. The return values of these blocks are ignored.

Editor’s note: this document is out of date and remains here for historic interest. See Synopsis 6 for the current design information.

Parameter Traits

The following traits can be applied to many types of parameters.

is constant

Specifies that the parameter cannot be modified (e.g. assigned to, incremented). It is the default for parameters.

is rw

Specifies that the parameter can be modified (assigned to, incremented, etc). Requires that the corresponding argument is an lvalue or can be converted to one.

When applied to a variadic parameter, the rw trait applies to each element of the list:

    sub incr (*@vars is rw) { $_++ for @vars }

is ref

Specifies that the parameter is passed by reference. Unlike is rw, the corresponding argument must already be a suitable lvalue. No attempt at coercion or autovivification is made.

is copy

Specifies that the parameter receives a distinct, read-writeable copy of the original argument. This is commonly known as “pass-by-value.”

    sub reprint ($text, $count is copy) {
        print $text while $count-->0;
    }

is context(TYPE)

Specifies the context that a parameter applies to its argument. Typically used to cause a final list parameter to apply a series of scalar contexts:

    # &format may have as many arguments as it likes,
    # each of which is evaluated in scalar context

    sub format(*@data is context(Scalar)) {...}

Advanced Subroutine Features

The &_ routine

&_ is always an alias for the current subroutine, much like the $_ alias for the current topic:

    my $anonfactorial = sub (Int $n) {
                            return 1 if $n<2;
                            return $n * &_($n-1)
                        };

The caller Function

The caller function returns an object that describes a particular “higher” dynamic scope, from which the current scope was called.

    print "In ",           caller.sub,
          " called from ", caller.file,
          " line ",        caller.line,
          "\n";

caller may be given arguments telling it what kind of higher scope to look for, and how many such scopes to skip over when looking:

    $caller = caller;                      # immediate caller
    $caller = caller Method;               # nearest caller that is method
    $caller = caller Bare;                 # nearest caller that is bare block
    $caller = caller Sub, skip=>2;         # caller three levels up
    $caller = caller Block, label=>'Foo';  # caller whose label is 'Foo'

The want Function

The want function returns an object that contains information about the context in which the current block, closure, or subroutine was called.

The returned context object is typically tested with a smart match (~~) or a when:

   given want {
        when Scalar {...}           # called in scalar context
        when List   {...}           # called in list context
        when Lvalue {...}           # expected to return an lvalue
        when 2      {...}           # expected to return two values
        ...
    }

or has the corresponding methods called on it:

       if (want.Scalar)    {...}    # called in scalar context
    elsif (want.List)      {...}    # called in list context
    elsif (want.rw)        {...}    # expected to return an lvalue
    elsif (want.count > 2) {...}    # expected to return more than two values

The leave Function

A return statement causes the innermost surrounding subroutine, method, rule, macro or multimethod to return.

To return from other types of code structures, the leave funtion is used:

    leave;                      # return from innermost block of any kind
    leave Method;               # return from innermost calling method
    leave &_ <== 1,2,3;         # Return from current sub. Same as: return 1,2,3
    leave &foo <== 1,2,3;       # Return from innermost surrounding call to &foo
    leave Loop, label=>'COUNT'; # Same as: last COUNT;

Temporization

The temp function temporarily replaces a variable, subroutine or other object in a given scope:

    {
       temp $*foo = 'foo';      # Temporarily replace global $foo
       temp &bar = sub {...};   # Temporarily replace sub &bar
       ...
    } # Old values of $*foo and &bar reinstated at this point

temp invokes its argument’s .TEMP method. The method is expected to return a reference to a subroutine that can later restore the current value of the object. At the end of the lexical scope in which the temp was applied, the subroutine returned by the .TEMP method is executed.

The default .TEMP method for variables simply creates a closure that assigns the variable’s pre-temp value back to the variable.

New kinds of temporization can be created by writing storage classes with their own .TEMP methods:

    class LoudArray is Array {
        method TEMP {
            print "Replacing $_.id() at $(caller.location)\n";
            my $restorer = .SUPER::TEMP();
            return { 
                print "Restoring $_.id() at $(caller.location)\n";
                $restorer();
            };
        }
    }

You can also modify the behaviour of temporized code structures, by giving them a TEMP block. As with .TEMP methods, this block is expected to return a closure, which will be executed at the end of the temporizing scope to restore the subroutine to its pre-temp state:

    my $next = 0;
    sub next {
        my $curr = $next++;
        TEMP {{ $next = $curr }}  # TEMP block returns the closure { $next = $curr }
        return $curr;
    }

Wrapping

Every subroutine has a .wrap method. This method expects a single argument consisting of a block, closure or subroutine. That argument must contain a call to the special call function:

    sub thermo ($t) {...}   # set temperature in Celsius, returns old temp

    # Add a wrapper to convert from Fahrenheit...

    $id = &thermo.wrap( { call( ($^t-32)/1.8 ) } );

The call to .wrap replaces the original subroutine with the closure argument, and arranges that the closure’s call to call invokes the original (unwrapped) version of the subroutine. In other words, the call to .wrap has more or less the same effect as:

    &old_thermo := &thermo;
    &thermo := sub ($t) { old_thermo( ($t-32)/1.8 ) }

The call to .wrap returns a unique identifier that can later be passed to the .unwrap method, to undo the wrapping:

    &thermo.unwrap($id);

A wrapping can also be restricted to a particular dynamic scope with temporization:

    # Add a wrapper to convert from Kelvin
    # wrapper self-unwraps at end of current scope

    temp &thermo.wrap( { call($^t + 273.16) } );

Currying

Every subroutine has an .assuming method. This method takes a series of named arguments, whose names must match parameters of the subroutine itself:

    &textfrom := &substr.assuming(str=>$text, len=>Inf);

It returns a reference to a subroutine that implements the same behavior as the original subroutine, but has the values passed to .assuming already bound to the corresponding parameters:

    $all  = $textfrom(0);   # same as: $all  = substr($text,0,Inf);
    $some = $textfrom(50);  # same as: $some = substr($text,50,Inf);
    $last = $textfrom(-1);  # same as: $last = substr($text,-1,Inf);

The result of a use statement is a (compile-time) object that also has an .assuming method, allowing the user to bind parameters in all the module’s subroutines/methods/etc. simultaneously:

    (use IO::Logging).assuming(logfile => ".log");

Other Matters

Anonymous Hashes vs. Blocks

{...} is always a block/closure unless it consists of a single list, the first element of which is either a hash or a pair.

The standard pair LIST function is equivalent to:

    sub pair (*@LIST) {
        my @pairs;
        for @LIST -> $key, $val {
            push @pairs, $key=>$val;
        }
        return @pairs;
    }

The standard hash function takes a block, evaluates it in list context, and constructs an anonymous hash from the resulting key/value list:

    $ref = hash { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };   # Anonymous hash
    $ref = sub  { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };   # Anonymous sub returning list
    $ref =      { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };   # Anonymous sub returning list
    $ref =      { 1=>2, 3=>4, 5=>6 };   # Anonymous hash
    $ref =      { 1=>2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };   # Anonymous hash

Pairs as lvalues

Pairs can be used as lvalues. The value of the pair is the recipient of the assignment:

    (key => $var) = "value";

When binding pairs, names can be used to “match up” lvalues and rvalues:

    (who => $name, why => $reason) := (why => $because, who => "me");

Out-of-Scope Names

$CALLER::varname specifies the $varname visible in the dynamic scope from which the current block/closure/subroutine was called.

$MY::varname specifies the lexical $varname declared in the current lexical scope.

$OUTER::varname specifies the $varname declared in the lexical scope surrounding the current lexical scope (i.e. the scope in which the current block was defined).

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